To synthesize global evidence on foundational literacy and numeracy failures in low- and middle-income countries, identify the structural and pedagogical drivers of learning poverty, and evaluate the efficacy of proven interventions at scale.

Systematic review of 180+ RCTs and quasi-experimental studies on learning outcomes in LMICs, combined with cross-country panel data analysis of literacy rates versus education spending, teacher training intensity, curriculum design, and school governance models. Meta-regression used to isolate effect sizes of specific interventions while controlling for country income level and conflict status.

Learning poverty — defined as inability to read a simple text by age 10 — affects 70% of children in low-income countries and 57% globally. This is not primarily a school access problem: 90% of these children are enrolled in school. The crisis is instructional. 5 SD on literacy with low implementation cost ($3–8/child/year).

(2) Teacher training without ongoing coaching loses 80% of effect within 6 months. (3) Mother-tongue instruction in grades 1–3 increases literacy outcomes by 29–45% in multilingual societies. (4) Technology-based interventions show near-zero effect when deployed without trained facilitators.

(5) Education spending per pupil has zero correlation with learning outcomes in the bottom quartile of governance quality — institutional capacity is the binding constraint, not funding. Conservative estimate: closing the global learning gap would add $700B annually to global GDP by 2040.